Summery of Anarchist of Darwin Essay Example

Summery of Anarchist of Darwin Essay In a village; which is deserted far away from the main city, had a tragic news which buzzed around the village. The village was well known for its big ball of string made by a woman. It was heartbreaking for everyone to lose one of the famous artifact. This tragic was no ordinary accident, it was all set up. A non compose mentis lit the ball with gasoline in a silenced star night. The day broke out and a young man was standing near the unfortunate tragic. His name is Chris. Chris was an only child who lost his parents at early age. The village wasnt very favorable to Chris nor did he favor the neighbors. To consult about the further deed, all the people in the town were invited in a school gym. Different opinions struck through the gym about the ball but no one had agreed on the ideas so the meeting was postponed till the inspectors found some evidence. Chris silence broke when his childhood friend (Tank) dashed in with his wife (Meal). Tank was very disturbed about the event. Suddenly another person came to the conversation between Chris, Tank, and Meal. It was Buddy. Chris and Buddy never got along from grade school. Chris was a loner in a simple term. We will write a custom essay sample on Summery of Anarchist of Darwin specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Summery of Anarchist of Darwin specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Summery of Anarchist of Darwin specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer He never liked anyone from the village besides a young girl named Claire. Chris had affection about Claire which he cannot express. Every night Chris would wonder off to the park which was located very close to Claimers house. He would stare right through her window from a distinctive space and watch her change and or her working out. The only problem about Claim was that most of the night Chris would see a man walk out of her house, even Tank. This gave Chris a hypothesis that Claire Is a prostitute. Although Tank Is married, he Is like the person who would have sex with anyone besides man. After a week the police found some clues and called all the citizens to the same gym again. The police started talking about how the ball was set on fire and he referred the man who was up to this a loner, unhappy, perhaps a serious associative disorder. Perhaps a delusion? A man In the crowd broke the silence by saying Someone like our Chris then the gym echoed In laughter and suddenly It all became quiet. Another person In the crowd asked Yeah Chris where were you at that night? Chris became red hot and Claire tried to calm him down. Then he stood up and darted to giggle. He told everyone that he was the person who destroyed the ball because he hated It. HIS mother made the ball and the chemicals used to make the ball were very toxic which had killed her mother right at the finishing. Due to his mothers death, Chris old man started taking booze and found dead for over does of alcohol consumption. And he was very proud about how he made all the people come together about some bullish stuff. At the end of Chris speech, all the audience stared at him Like he was mentally challenged which Chris didnt believe. At that point Chris gave up on the whole damn world. Summery of Anarchist of Darwin By Naif-Naifs Chris a hypothesis that Claire is a prostitute. Although Tank is married, he is like the disorder. Perhaps a delusion? A man in the crowd broke the silence by saying Someone like our Chris then the gym echoed in laughter and suddenly it all became quiet. Another person in the crowd asked anemia Chris where were you at that night? because he hated it. His mother made the ball and the chemicals used to make the At the end of Chris speech, all the audience stared at him like he was mentally.

How did U.S. mobilization for essays

How did U.S. mobilization for essays The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7th 1941 brought the U.S. into WWII in a military sense. All of a sudden it seemed that the economy took off and the depression was a thing of the past. The massive war industry brought sweeping changes to the areas of Government, Business and Labor. Labor is probably the area that got the biggest lift from U.S. mobilization. The massive unemployment rate from a few years before vanished. This was due to a need for workers in war factories and many were drafted into the military. In order to meet wartime production needs and to oversee the massive workforce, Roosevelt created the War Manpower Board. Using the WMB, Roosevelt lengthened the workweek to 48 hours while the war lasted. Afraid of crippling labor strikes due to the change, he also founded the War Labor Board. The WLB help secure labor rights by managing wages, securing the right of workers to bargain and saw to the safety of work conditions. Since the WLB protected the right of workers to join a union, union membership rapidly increased during the war years. The greatest benefit from the WLB came in 1943 when they decided that pay would increase to be in scale with the cost of living. Steel workers were the first to benefit when their pay received a 15% increase, which was determined to be the amount at which the cost of living had increased. Women also made giant leaps forward during this time. With a large number of men being drafted for military service, women filled jobs in factories that had been traditionally filled by men. Rosie the Riveter became a popular symbol of womens involvement in the war effort. In later years, feminist regret the fact that the opportunity to move the cause of womens rights further during this time was not acted upon. A general strike or organized organization could have really made a big impact, since women workers were so important to the war effort. ...

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder - Essay Example ated with the disorder are often fixated on such effects as inflicting harm upon another person or creature, dealing with failures in one’s personal life, or sexuality. Very often those who must deal with obsessions and compulsions over which they have no control begin to feel as they might be slipping into insanity. The compulsions can be wide-ranging, but almost all are typically situated within the psyche as a means to relieve anxiety. OCD is often described as an exaggeration of the quite common ability of the human mind to force one to obsess upon a single idea. For instance, who hasn’t found themselves absently humming the same tune over and again in an almost compulsive manner? The difference between the normality of obsessive and compulsive desires like these is that when the average person become aware of the act they are capable of stopping themselves. The sufferers of OCD, by contrast, cannot. Though designated as a mental disorder, current research indicates that the cause of OCD is neurobiological. Neurons in the brain of those who suffer from OCD have been discovered to have a high sensitivity to serotonin. Serotonin is a chemical that assists in the transmission of signals to the brain. Further research indicates that the trigger of OCD may be the onset of puberty, the effect of mental stress, and possibly even a genetic predisposition toward the development of the diseases (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Part I). Successful treatment of OCD in the past few years has been accomplished through the use of medication, specifically that family of antidepressant drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The most popular drugs for treating OCD have been clomipramine (Anafranil), fluoxetine (Prozac), fluvoxamine (Luvox), and sertraline (Zoloft) (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Part I). These medications treatment the symptoms of OCD through altering the level of serotonin utilized in the transmission of signals to

Task 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Task 2 - Essay Example Decision making is often seen as the central job of the managers who decides what is to be done, who has to do it, where, when and how it is to be done. Decision making is regarded to the first step in the planning even when it is done quickly by taking a little time to decide and also influences an action just for a minute (Koontz and Weihrich, 2006). There are various theories related to philosophical, mathematical and economic sources. This study highlights on the various theories of decision making. The Classical Model The classical decision theory is straightforward. It assumes that there is only one best solution to the problem; the decision maker needs to identify it, select it and then finally implement it. According the following sequential steps has been designed. Step 1: Identification of the problem The actual and the desired outcome should be determined and then any type of disparity existing between the two should be identified. Step 2: Diagnose the problem The informat ion should be collected and should be analysed properly in order to gain a clear explanation of the nature of the problem. Step 3: Define the alternatives After understanding the nature of the problem the potential options to the solution of the problems must be developed. Step 4: Examine the consequences The probable consequences of all the potential alternatives should be examined rigorously. Step 5: Make the decision The best amongst the potential alternatives must be chosen. While choosing the best alternative one should see that the objective and the goals are maximised. Step 6: Do it The decision must be implemented. The classical model leads to the optimization of strategy. This approach stands on the classical economic theory that is based on the assumptions of apparent goal, full information and cognitive ability to deeply analyse the problem. However practical problems exists that follows this perspective. Decision makers are human beings who have emotions, feelings and a variety of interests. Compromise and diversity are the stuffs that are their everyday requirement. One objective may be favoured over the other but no one allows one single goal that is an unrealistic one dimensionality to dominate in the working life (Hoy and Miskel, 1991). The notion that the organizational goals are simple and clear is oversimplification. Goals of the organization are often conflicting and complex. The problem of improbability is essential for the organization. Dealing with the problem of improbability has now become a common agenda in the organization share (Mintzberg, 1983). However there is no such common criterion for dealing with the improbability in the decision making (Thompson, 1967). It is virtually not possible to select the best alternative when the consequences are not known. Improbability makes optimizing an impractical choice. The unnecessary demand for human cognition that cannot be met is another problem with the optimizing strategy. Neither any o rganization nor any person is capable and smart such that they can conduct maximum utilization of anything. Even the modern computers are incapable to achieve this feat. For instance the computers are incapable of handling the huge quantity of information that is required to choose the simplified move in the game of chess (Feldman and Kanter, 1965; Hoy and Miskel, 19

Strategic Management Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Strategic Management Planning - Essay Example Their number of customers is accruing on a steady basis. Despite of all this there are certain serious issues which need to be taken into consideration for the company to achieve success in all the areas. After reviewing the whole company through the process of Porter's analysis, SWOT analysis, financial analysis and Mckinsey analysis I have gathered certain issues, which if handled the company can do hundred times better then their current output. Those customers who could not pay for their repaired motors used to leave their motors with the company. The company can facilitate them in the form of paying their amounts through installments. Here the company would not have to worry about the untaken cars but just would have to keep track of the installment payments. This would leave extra space within the workshop. No doubts that the company has UL certification, but the awareness of ISO certification is making the customers more conscious as to where to buy the service. Having the ISO certification would help us also cater those customers who are ISO conscious for the quality provided. The company is not giving any salary appraisal automatically. In order to motivate their staff and maximize the output, the company should pay its employees in the form of piece rate. Here the staff would be paid some base pay as well as extra pay on each motor that they have helped in repairing. 7. Finance The company is in dire need of accountants. A lot of stuff is being done on the basis of historical data, which would be unhealthy in the long run. 8. Research and Development Do research on electric motors to be used in water industry as the analysis shows that there would soon be changes being made in the water industry. 9. Innovation Be innovative and creative in manufacturing sophisticated devices. 10. Research There have been unknown reasons for winding failures. Why not hire some skilled workers to research on this problem. A solution to it would be a lottery for the company. 11. Customized Control Panels Brithinee has a competitive advantage over making customized control panels. Why not advertise our capabilities to let the untapped market know of our skills. 12. Research The company is losing quite amount of money due to its gas emissions. There is always a solution to cut down costs. Find out ways as to how to reduce these harmful emissions. Look for what other repair shops are using. 13. Customer Site Find solutions for catering the customers at their own site. The more we expand our services the more

Environmental Toxicology and Human Health

Environmental Toxicology and Human Health Environmental Toxicology and Human Health Environmental Toxicology is a field of science with various disciplines involved in the study of the adverse effects of various physical, chemical and biological agents on living organisms particularly animals, birds and fishes (Philp, 2001, pp. 10-11). Physical agents. They are sources of energy that may have negative effects on human health and that of biological organisms such as fish, birds and animals (Philp, 2001, pp. 20-25). One such agent is noise which can be defined as unwanted sound. Noise has both permanent and temporary damage to the ears rendering one incapable of hearing or resulting to tinnitus both of which are irreparable (McCally, 2002, pp. 58-67). Noise in the workplace also poses a threat to the workers in that they may fail to hear sounds indicating threats. Vibration, also a physical agent is categorized into two: hand-arm vibration (HAV) and whole body vibration (WBV). Continuous exposure to HAV has been proven to lead to hand-arm vibration syndrome a permanent and incapacitating health effect such as musculoskeletal disorders of the hand (McCally, 2002). On the other hand, continued exposure to WBV is associated with severe pain on the lower posterior. Optical radiation also has some grim effects on the health of people. Ult raviolet radiation emanated by the sun presents the utmost danger to our health. When exposed to the eyes it may lead to spoiled cornea and severe pain while exposure on the skin may vary from burning, redness and hastened ageing through skin cancer of different types. Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) generated due to electrical energy used may also be detrimental (Philp, 2001). Though they seldom occur, constant exposure to the EMFs can result to severe effects depending on the frequency of the radiation. Electricity can also be viewed as a threat since it may lead to death or severe injuries such as electric burns, thermal burns and electric burns to people. Last but not least we have ionizing radiation. Contact with low-level ionizing radiations may lead to cancer and DNA mutations while high-level exposures cause radiation sicknesses and burns (Philp, 2001). Biological agents. These include bacteria, viruses, fungi, other microorganisms and toxins associated with them. While some of these agents have no harmful implication on the human health, others have the potential to affect the human health in various ways ranging from moderately mild, allergic reactions to serious medical illnesses even demise. These agents occur widely in the environment (Environmental Toxicology And Human Health, n.d.). Biological agents have the capacity to reproduce rapidly, require little resources to live and can poison at very small doses thus they are a probable danger in a widely in our environment. Biological agents can be categorized into four sets according to their severity of infection and likelihood of prevention and treatment (McCally, 2002, pp. 150-200). Group 1 agents are those with low chances of causing ill effects to the organisms. Group two consists those toxicities that are unsafe for the workers but chances of spreading to the community are very minimal. Group 3 agents are those that can cause severe human disease, pose a serious threat to the workers and are likely to spread to the community. However, these toxicities can be treated. Group 4 agents are similar to group 3 agents except for the fact that there is no effective management for them. These are some of the most contagious and extensive biological agents: anthrax, botulism, avian flu, and Ebola (Environmental Toxicology And Human Health, n.d.). Chemical agents. These are as a result of the products we use in our day to day doings. Pesticides are a perfect instance of chemical toxins (Lakind). Pesticides persist in the environment long after their use which can result in bioaccumulation of chemicals in various organisms along with biomagnification within a group of organisms that depend on each other for food. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is another agent that was banned due to its negative effects on living organisms (Lakind). The reactions chemical toxicities is dependent on several factors that I will briefly discuss. Age is a significant aspect in establishing the response to a toxic chemical (Lakind). For example, parathion is more lethal to young animals. Although very rare, sex can determine the response to a toxicant. For instance, when exposed to parathion the female rat is twice as affected as the male rat. The responses to a toxic chemical also depends on the species (Safe). For example, insecticides are lethal to insects but relatively non-toxic to animals. Toxicity of a chemical is determined by factors such as: the dosage-it is the most critical factor if a substance will be acute or a chronic toxicant (Lakind). The form that a chemical agent is in also defines its toxicity. For instance, the poisonousness of mercury in gas form is very different from methyl mercury. The entry point of a toxin is also a measure of its toxicity. One other factor is the rate of removal from an organism’s system. According to Paracelsus all substances are poisons only the dose differentiates whether it is a poison or a remedy (Safe). Exposure assessment is the process of establishing the regularity, period and expansiveness of exposure to toxicities together with the traits and number of the population exposed. Methods of exposure assessment include direct and indirect approach (Philp, 2001, pp. 100-108). In direct approach exposure to the agents is determined by monitoring the pollutant concentrations reaching the person while in indirect approach the toxicant concentration is measured during specific human activities to predict the exposure distributions within a population (McCally, 2002). Epidemiology is important to research studies of environmental health since many environmental exposures can be addressed only by comparing populations instead of individuals and the interruption of both local and universal environments require us to come up with new methods of study design that is epidemiology. The epidemiologic approach to studying environmental health problems has its limitations. One of such constraint i s the quick changes in the health and nutritional status of many populations that have been affected majorly which may lead to inconclusive results (Safe). Another limitation is the fact that data collected through epidemiology is often ignored and limited by factors such as limited resources, personal priorities, political concerns and public relations (Philp, 2001). Since epidemiology depends on valid data, restriction on the gathering of data can be considered a constraint. This may be due to insecurity or lack of resources preventing the researchers from submitting surveillance data (Safe). References. Environmental Toxicology And Human Health. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://docsfiles.com/pdf_environmental_toxicology_and_human_health.html Lakind, J. S. (n.d.). Workshop on Human Milk Surveillance and Research on Environmental Chemicals in the United States. journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A. McCally, M. (2002). Life support the environment and human health. MIT Press. Philp, R. B. (2001). Ecosystems and human health: toxicology and environmental hazards. Lewis Publishers. Safe, S. (n.d.). Toxicology, Structure-Function Relationship, and Human and Environmental Health Impacts of Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Progress and Problems. Environmental Health Perspectives.

Fiction †literature Essay

Hemingway’s modernist style of storytelling requires an impersonal narrator. The narrator describes the scene, and interjects small actions into the dialogue, but remains a facilitator for the reader to concentrate on the dialogue and the action of the story. The narrator in this story seems to tell the story as if it were a video clip, a nameless railway station somewhere between Barcelona and Madrid, ghostly white hills, a faceless waitress and an anonymous couple. The use of this narrator makes the reader look much deeper into the dialogue of the couple, because without the narrator spelling out the action for the reader, one is forced to interpret much more from the character’s words. This modernist device tends to separate the reader momentarily from the text, so that the full impact of the story is not truly felt until one is finished reading. However, this device serves to make the story connect on a deeper level, and to have more impact as it hits one suddenly, instead of being built into a slow climax. From almost the beginning of his writing career, Hemingway employed a distinctive style which drew comment from many critics. Hemingway does not give way to lengthy geographical and psychological description. His style has been said to lack substance because he avoids direct statements and descriptions of emotion. Basically his style is simple, direct and somewhat plain. He developed a forceful prose style characterized by simple sentences and few adverbs or adjectives. He wrote concise, vivid dialogue and exact description of places and things. Critic Harry Levin pointed out the weakness of syntax and diction in Hemingway’s writing, but was quick to praise his ability to convey action The majority of his early novels were narrated in the first person and enclosed within a single point of view, however, when Hemingway wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls, he used several different narrative techniques. He employed the use of internal monologues (where the reader is in the â€Å"mind† of a particular character), objective descriptions, rapid shifts of point of view, and in general a looser structure than in his earlier works. Hemingway believed that â€Å"a writer’s style should be direct and personal, his imagery rich and earthy, and his words simple and vigorous. The greatest writers have the gift of brevity, are hard workers, diligent scholars and competent stylistsÃ'Ž To explain Hemingway’s style in a few paragraphs in such a manner as to satisfy those who have read his articles and books is almost impossible. It is a simple style, straight forward and modest. Hemingway’s prose is unadorned as a result of his abstaining from using adjectives as much as possible. He relates a story in the form of straight journalism, but because he is a master of transmitting emotion with out embelli

History of Social Psychology Essay

As a scientific discipline, social psychology is only a bit older than one hundred years, with most of the growth occurring during the past five decades (McGarty & Haslam, 1997). By most standards, social psychology is a relatively young science. In discussing the discipline’s history, it should be noted that there are two social psychologies, one in psychology and the other in sociology, with the larger of the two being the psychological branch (Jones, 1998). The central focus of psychological social psychology is how the individual responds to social stimuli, whereas sociological social psychology focuses on larger group or societal variables, such as people’s socioeconomic status, their social roles, and cultural norms (Stryker, 1997). Although there have been calls to merge the two social psychologies into a single field (Backman, 1983)-—and even a joint psychology-sociology doctoral program at the University of Michigan from 1946 to 1967–their different orientations make it doubtful that this will transpire in the foreseeable future. In this historical overview, the psychological branch of the discipline will be highlighted. Wundt and The Dawning of a Scientific Discipline: 1862-1894 German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1921), who is widely regarded as the founder of psychology, had a hand in the early development of what would become social psychology. In 1862, Wundt proposed that there should be two branches of psychology: physiological psychology and social or folk psychology (Và ¶lkerpsychologie). Largely due to his influential writings, by 1900 Germany’s annual bibliography of the psychological literature listed over 200 articles per year under the heading â€Å"social psychology.† Despite his influence in shaping social psychology in Europe, Wundt’s ideas had little impact on American social scientists because his writings were not translated into English and his conception of psychology as the â€Å"science of the mind† was incompatible with the new behaviorist perspective in the United States that emerged during the early years of the 20th century. Underlying behaviorism was a philosophy known as logical positivism, which contended that knowledge should be expressed in terms that could be verified empirically or through direct observation. This new â€Å"science of behavior† had little use for Wundt’s conception of social psychology. This was especially true for the social psychology developing in psychology in America, but less so for sociological social psychology. Thus, psychological social psychology in America, which would become the intellectual core of the discipline, developed largely outside the realm of Wundtian influence. The Early Years: 1895–1935 An American psychologist at Indiana University, Norman Triplett, is generally credited with having conducted the first empirical social psychological study. In 1895 Triplett asked the following question: â€Å"How does a person’s performance of a task change when other people are present?† The question was prompted by Triplett noticing that a bicycle racer’s speed was faster when he was paced by other cyclists than when he raced alone. Being a racing enthusiast and desiring to learn what caused these different race times, he devised the first social scientific experiment. In this study, he asked children to quickly wind line on a fishing reel either alone or in the presence of other children performing the same task. As he had predicted, the children wound the line faster when in the presence of other children. Published in 1897, this study is credited with introducing the experimental method into the social sciences. Despite the significance of this study, it took a full generation for researchers to understand the social psychological dynamics underlying Triplett’s findings (see the chapter 10 discussion of social facilitation). Despite this accomplishment, Triplett did nothing to establish social psychology as a distinct subfield of psychology. Credit for this achievement goes to the first authors of textbooks bearing that title, namely, English psychologist William McDougall and American sociologist Edward Ross, who each published separate texts in 1908. Consistent with the contemporary perspective in psychological social  psychology, McDougall considered the individual to be the principal unit of analysis in this new science, while Ross, true to the contemporary sociological social psychology perspective, highlighted groups. Despite the inauguration of this new subfield within psychology and sociology, social psychology still lacked a distinct identity. How was it different from the other subdisciplines within the two larger disciplines? What were its methods of inquiry? In 1924 a third social psychology text, published by Floyd Allport (older brother of Gordon Allport), went a long way in answering these questions for psychological social psychology. Reading his words today, you can see the emerging perspective that would one day permeate the psychological branch of the field: I believe that only within the individual can we find the behavior mechanisms and consciousness which are fundamental in the interactions between individuals†¦. There is no psychology of groups which is not essentially and entirely a psychology of individuals†¦. Psychology in all its branches is a science of the individual. (Allport, 1924, p. 4) Allport’s conception of social psychology was proposed eleven years after John Watson ushered in the behaviorist era in American psychology. Allport’s brand of social psychology emphasized how the person responds to stimuli in the social environment, with the group merely being one of many such stimuli. Beyond this emerging individualist and behaviorist stamp, Allport further shaped the identity of American social psychology by extolling the virtues of the experimental method in studying such topics as conformity, nonverbal communication, and social facilitation. The pursuit of social psychological knowledge through carefully controlled experimental procedures would increasingly characterize the field in the coming years. As Allport’s conception of social psychology gained American adherents, German social psychology was being shaped by the Gestalt perspective, which rejected both the existing European-inspired notion of a group mind and the American individualist stand that groups were not real in themselves. Instead, Gestalt social psychologists contended that the social environment  is made up not only of individuals, but of relations between individuals, and these relationships have important psychological implications. Thus, Gestalt social psychologists promoted an understanding of groups as real social entities, which directly led to the tradition of group processes and group dynamics that still exists today. These two schools of thought within psychological social psychology, one in America and the other in Germany, which were developing independent of one another, would soon be thrust together due to events on the world scene. The Coming of Age: 1936–1945 During the first three decades of the twentieth century, Allport’s conception of social psychology emphasized basic research, with little consideration given to addressing specific social problems or broader issues bearing on reform. However, by the mid-1930s, the discipline was poised for further growth and expansion. The events that had the greatest impact on social psychology at this critical juncture in its history were the Great Depression in the United States and the social and political upheavals in Europe generated by the First and Second World Wars. Following the stock market crash of 1929, many young psychologists were unable to find or hold jobs. Experiencing firsthand the impact of societal forces, many of them adopted the liberal ideals of the Roosevelt â€Å"New Dealers† or the more radical left-wing political views of the socialist and communist parties. In 1936 these social scientists formed an organization dedicated to the scientific study of important social issues and the support for progressive social action (Stagner, 1986). This organization, known as the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), contained many social psychologists who were interested in applying their newly developed theories and political activism to real-world problems. One of the important contributions of SPSSI to social psychology was, and continues to be, the infusion of ethics and values into the discussion of social life. Its immediate impact on social psychology in the 1930s was to infuse a more applied character to research. New areas of research spawned during this decade were intergroup relations, leadership, propaganda, organizational  behavior, voting behavior, and consumer behavior. In other countries, world events triggered changes that further distinguished American social psychology from its scientific cousins abroad. For example, the communist revolution in Russia at the end of the First World War led to a purging of individualist-oriented research and theorizing, a development that stood in stark contrast to the increasing focus on the individual within American social psychology. In 1936, the Soviet Union’s Communist Party forbids the use of psychological tests in various applied settings, which effectively prohibited the study of individual differences. At the same time, the rise of fascism in Germany, Spain, and Italy created a strong anti-intellectual and anti-Semitic atmosphere in these countries. To escape this persecution, a number of Europe’s leading social scientists, such as Fritz Heider, Gustav Ichheiser, Kurt Lewin, and Theodor Adorno, immigrated to America. When the United States entered the war, many social psychologists—both American and European— applied their knowledge of human behavior in a wide variety of wartime programs, including the selection of officers for the Office of Strategic Services (the forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency) and the undermining of enemy morale (Hoffman, 1992). The constructive work resulting from this collaboration demonstrated the practical usefulness of social psychology. During this time of global strife, one of the most influential social psychologists was Kurt Lewin, a Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany. Lewin was instrumental in founding SPSSI and served as its president in 1941. He firmly believed that social psychology did not have to make a choice between being either a pure science or an applied science. His oft-repeated maxim, â€Å"No research without action, and no action without research† continues to influence social psychologists interested in applying their knowledge to current social problems (Ash, 1992). By the time of his death in 1947 at the age of 57, Lewin had provided many of social psychology’s defining characteristics (Lewin, 1936; Lewin et al., 1939). With the end of the war, prospects were bright for social psychology in  North America. Based on their heightened stature in the scientific community, social psychologists established new research facilities, secured government grants, and, most important, trained graduate students. These future social psychologists were predominantly white, male, and middle class. Many of their mentors were the European scholars who had fled their native countries and then remained in America following the war. Yet, while social psychology was flourishing in this country, the devastating effects of the world war virtually destroyed the discipline overseas. In this postwar period, the United States emerged as the unchallenged world power, and just as it exported its material goods to other countries, it exported its social psychology as well. This brand of social psychology reflected the political ideology of American society and the social problems encountered within its boundaries (Farr, 1996). Rapid Expansion: 1946–1969 With its infusion of European intellectuals and the recently trained young American social psychologists, the maturing science of social psychology expanded its theoretical and research base. To understand how a civilized society like Germany could fall under the influence of a ruthless demagogue like Adolf Hitler, Theodor Adorno and his colleagues (Adorno et al., 1950) studied the psychological parameters of the authoritarian personality. Some years later, Stanley Milgram (1963) extended this line of research in his now famous obedience experiments, which examined the conditions that make people more likely to obey destructive authority figures. Social psychologists also focused their attention on the influence that the group had on the individual (Asch, 1956) and of the power of persuasive communication (Hovland et al., 1949). Arguably the most significant line of research and theorizing during this period was Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957). This theory asserted that people’s thoughts and actions were motivated by a desire to maintain cognitive consistency. The simplicity of the theory and its often surprising findings generated interest and enthusiasm both inside and outside of social psychology for many years. Social psychology’s concern with societal prejudice continued to assert itself during the 1950s. For example, the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision to end the practice of racially segregated education was partly based on Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark’s research indicating that segregation negatively affected the self-concept of Black children. In that same year, Gordon Allport (brother of Floyd Allport) provided a theoretical outline for how desegregation might reduce racial prejudice. What came to be known as the contact hypothesis was a social psychological blueprint for reducing hostility between groups by manipulating situational variables. This perspective toward understanding and â€Å"fixing† prejudice better fit the behaviorist social psychology practiced in America than the earlier developed authoritarian personality approach. The decade of the 1960s was a time of turmoil in the United States, with the country caught in the grip of political assassinations, urban violence, social protests, and the Vietnam War. People were searching for constructive ways to change society for the better. Following this lead, social psychologists devoted more research time to such topics as aggression, helping, attraction, and love. The groundbreaking research of Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid (Berscheid & Hatfield, 1969; Hatfield et al., 1966) on interpersonal and romantic attraction, for example, was not only important in widening the scope of social psychological inquiry, but it also generated considerable controversy outside the field. A number of public officials and ordinary citizens thought social scientists should not try to understand the mysteries of romance. Less controversial was the bystander intervention research conducted by Bibb Latanà © and John Darley (1968), which was inspired by the 1984 murder of K itty Genovese in New York City. Despite the wariness of some, during the 1960s the federal government expanded its attempts to cure societal ills with the guidance of social scientists. Within this cultural context, the number of social psychologists rose dramatically. Among these new social scientists were an increasing number of women and, to a lesser degree, minority members. Whole new lines of inquiry into social behavior commenced, with an increasing interest in  the interaction of the social situation with personality factors. The multitude and diversity of these lines of research would continue into the following decades (Pion et al., 1996). Crisis and Reassesesment: 1970–1984 When social psychology first emerged from World War II and embarked on its rapid expansion, one of the pioneers in the field, Theodore Newcomb (1951), expressed concern that expectations were greater than anything that could be delivered in the near future. By the 1970s, when solutions to societal problems were no closer to being solved, and as the usefulness and ethics of experimental research came under increased scrutiny, a â€Å"crisis of confidence† emerged (Elms, 1975). When this disappointment and criticism was followed by accusations from women and minorities that past research and theory reflected the biases of a white, male-dominated view of reality, many began to reassess the field’s basic premises. Fortunately, out of this crisis emerged a more vital and inclusive field of social psychology. More rigorous ethical standards were established, and although experiments remained the method of choice, researchers began conducting more correlational studies, as well as employing other methods. Regarding accusations of racial and gender bias, social psychology began moving toward more responsible positions, but such biases have yet to be eliminated from the discipline (Graham, 1992; Tesser & Bau, 2002). Another important development during this time period was the importing of ideas from cognitive psychology in explaining social behavior. This â€Å"cognitive revolution† (see p. 00) greatly enhanced theory and research in all areas of social psychology, and its impact persists today. Accompanying the social cognitive emphasis was renewed interest in the concept of the self, which previously had been the focus of only sociological social psychologists. However, with the waning influence of behaviorism, psychological social psychologists rediscovered the insights of founding social scientists such as William James, John Dewey, Charles Horton Cooley, and George Herbert Mead. Soon the self became a central concept within psychological social psychology. An Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View of Social Psychology: 1985–present By the 1970s, both European and Latin American social psychological associations had been founded, and in 1995, the Asian Association of Social Psychology was formed. The social psychology that developed overseas placed more emphasis on intergroup and societal variables in explaining social behavior than did its American cousin. In the mid-1980s, this overseas influence began to reshape the discipline, as social psychologists throughout the world actively exchanged ideas and collaborated on multinational studies (Fiske et al., 1998; Vala et al., 1996). Many of the new ideas about social behavior were generated by scholars from collectivist cultures who were raised within societies that have a very different perspective on the relationship between the individual and the group than that within the societies of traditional social psychologists. Subsequent cross-cultural research found that certain social beliefs and behaviors that were previously considered universal were in actuality specific to the socialization practices of individualist cultures. Based on these findings, considerable research attention was devoted to determining which aspects of human behavior are culture specific–due to conditions existing within a particular culture–and which ones are due to human’s shared evolutionary heritage. Although social psychology’s â€Å"professional center of gravity† still resides in the United States, European and Third World social psychology offers the entire field opportunities to escape what some consider the limitations of this â€Å"gravitational pull† to perceive new worlds of social reality (Shinha, 2003; Tam et al., 2003). This multicultural perspective will continue to guide research in the coming years. Contemporary social psychologists have also continued the legacy of Kurt Lewin and SPSSI by applying their knowledge to a wide arena of everyday life, such as law, health, education, politics, sports, and business (Ellsworth & Mauro, 1998; Kinder, 1998; Salovey et al., 1998). This interest in applying the principles and findings of social psychology is a natural outgrowth of the search for understanding. Despite the dominance of social cognition in the 1980s, some social psychologists raised concerns about the relative lack of focus on emotions and motives in explaining social thinking. These critics of existing social cognitive theories argued that to think of motives and affect as merely end products in a central processing system was to dehumanize social psychology. In the early 1990s, a number of social psychologists sought to establish a more balanced view by blending the traditional hot and cold perspectives into what some have termed the Warm Look. These revised social-cognitive theories proposed that people employ multiple cognitive strategies based on their current goals, motives, and needs. Theorists typically developed dual-process models, meaning that social thinking and behavior is determined by two different ways of understanding and responding to social stimuli. One mode of information processing—related to the cold perspective legacy–is based on effortful, reflective thinking, in which no action is taken until its potential consequences are properly weighed and evaluated. The alternative mode of processing information–related to the hot perspective legacy—is based on minimal cognitive effort, in which behavior is impulsively and unintentionally activated by emotions, habits, or biological drives, often below the â€Å"radar† of consciousness. Which of the two avenues of information processing people take at any given time is the subject of ongoing research. This attention to both explicit and implicit cognition has recently prompted social psychologists to explore how neural activity in the brain is associated with various social psychological processes, including self-awareness, self-regulation, attitude formation and change, group interaction, and prejudice. Although the numbers of social psychologists who pursue such research is still relatively small, the knowledge they acquire concerning the biology of social behavior will undoubtedly play a role in reshaping existing theories. Indeed, the U.S. federal government’s National Institute of Mental Health—which has an annual budget of 1.3 billion dollars–has recently given priority to research grants that combine social psychology and neuroscience. In concluding this historical overview, if the life of a scientific discipline is analogous to a person’s life, then contemporary social psychology is best thought of as a â€Å"young adult† in the social sciences. Compared with some of the more established sciences, social psychology is â€Å"barely dry behind the ears† and still subject to growing pains (Abrams & Hogg, 2004; Brewer, 2004; Rozin, 2001). Yet it is a discipline where new and innovative ideas are unusually welcome, where new theoretical approaches and scientific methods from other scientific disciplines are regularly incorporated into the study of social thinking and behavior, and where members of the discipline regularly question the social significance of their findings. In this ongoing critical self-assessment, most social psychologists are confident that their still-young science will continue revealing important insights into how we function as social creatures. Some of the milestones of the f ield are listed in table 1. Table 1 Some Milestones in the Field of Social Psychology The Dawning of a New Discipline and Early Years 1862: Wilhelm Wundt proposes that psychology establish human or social sciences (Geisteswissenschaften) to study the higher mental processes involving language, social practices and customs, religion, and art. 1897: Norman Triplett publishes the first scientific study of social behavior, on a topic that was later called social facilitation. 1900: Wundt publishes the first volume of what would become a classic 10-volume set of Và ¶lkerpsychologie (folk or social psychology) which analyzed a wide variety of social thought and behavior. 1908: Psychologist William McDougall and sociologist Edward Ross separately publish social psychology textbooks. 1920: Willy Hellpach founds the first Institute for Social Psychology in Germany. Hitler’s rise to power leads to the institute’s demise in 1933. 1924: Floyd Allport publishes the third social psychology text, clearly identifying the focus for the psychological branch of the discipline and covering many topics that are still studied today. 1925: Edward Bogardus develops the social distance scale to measure attitudes toward ethnic groups. Shortly, Louis Thurstone (1928) and Rensis Likert (1932) further advance attitude scale development. 1934: George Herbert Mead’s book Mind, Self, and Society is published, stressing the interaction between the self and others. The Coming-of-Age Years 1936: The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues is founded. Muzafir Sherif publishes The Psychology of Social Norms, describing research on norm formation. 1939: John Dollard and his colleagues introduce the frustration-aggression hypothesis. 1941–1945: Social psychologists are recruited by the U.S. government for the war effort. Rapid Expansion Years 1949: Carl Hovland and his colleagues publish their first experiments on attitude change and persuasion. 1950: Theodor Adorno and his colleagues publish The Authoritarian Personality, which examines how extreme prejudice can be shaped by personality conflicts in childhood. 1951: Solomon Asch demonstrates conformity to false majority judgments. 1954: Gordon Allport publishes The Nature of Prejudice, which provides the framework for much of the future research on prejudice. Social psychologists provide key testimony in the U.S. Supreme Court desegregation case, Brown v. Board of Education. 1957: Leon Festinger publishes A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, emphasizing the need for consistency between cognition and behavior. 1958: Fritz Heider publishes The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, laying the groundwork for attribution theory. 1963: Stanley Milgram publishes his obedience research, demonstrating under what conditions people are likely to obey destructive authority figures. 1965: The Society of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Edward Jones and Kenneth Davis publish their ideas on social perception, stimulating attribution and social cognition research. Rapid Expansion Years 1966: The European Association of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Elaine (Walster) Hatfield and her colleagues publish the first studies of romantic attraction. 1968: John Darley and Bibb Latanà © present the bystander intervention model, explaining why people often do not help in emergencies. Crisis and Reassessment Years 1972: Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior, written by six influential attribution theorists, is published. Robert Wicklund and Shelley Duval publish Objective Self-Awareness Theory, describing how self-awareness influences cognition and behavior. 1974: The Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP) is founded. Sandra Bem develops the Bem Sex Role Inventory and Janet Spence and Robert Helmreich develop the Personal Attributes Questionnaire, both of which measure gender roles. 1981: Alice Eagly and her colleagues begin conducting meta-analyses of gender comparisons in social behavior, reopening the debate on gender differences. 1984: Susan Fiske and Shelly Taylor publish Social Cognition, summarizing theory and research on the social cognitive perspective in social psychology. The Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View Years 1986: Richard Petty and John Cacioppo publish Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes, describing a dual-process model of persuasion. 1989: Jennifer Crocker and Brenda Major publish their Psychological Review article on â€Å"Social Stigma and Self-Esteem,† examining how people respond to being the targets of discrimination. 1991: Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama publish their Psychological Review article on how culture shapes the self. 1995: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson publish â€Å"Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans† in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, presenting their research on how negative stereotypes can shape intellectual identity and performance. 1996: David Buss and Neal Malamuth publish Sex, Power, Conflict, an edited text offering evolutionary and feminist perspectives on sex and gender interactions. A growing number of social psychologists attempt to integrate these previously divergent perspectives. (Because the passage of time ultimately determines what events significantly shape a field, I will wait a few years before adding any more milestones to this list.)

Geography of the United Kingdom

Geography of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom (UK) is an island nation located in Western Europe. Its land area is made up of the island of Great Britain, part of the island of Ireland and many smaller nearby islands. The UK has coastlines along the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, and the North Sea. The UK is one of the worlds most developed nations and as such it has a global influence. Formation of the United Kingdom Much of the United Kingdoms history is known for the British Empire, its continuous worldwide trade and expansion that began as early as the end of the 14th century and the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. This article, however, focuses on the formation of the United Kingdom. The UK has a long history that consists of several different invasions, including a brief entry by the Romans in 55 B.C.E. In 1066 the UK area was part of the Norman Conquest, which aided in its cultural and political development. In 1282 the UK took over the independent Kingdom of Wales under Edward I and in 1301, his son, Edward II, was made the Prince of Wales in an effort to appease the Welsh people according to the United States Department of State. The oldest son of the British monarch is still given this title today. In 1536 England and Wales became an official union. In 1603, England and Scotland also came under the same rule when James VI succeeded Elizabeth I, his cousin, to become James I of England. A little over 100 years later in 1707, England and Scotland became unified as Great Britain. In the early 17th century Ireland became increasingly settled by people from Scotland and England and England sought control of the area (as it had for many centuries before). On January 1, 1801, a legislative union between Great Britain and Ireland took place and the region became known as the United Kingdom. However, throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, Ireland continuously fought for its independence. As a result in 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty established the Irish Free State (which later became an independent republic. Northern Ireland however, remained a part of the UK which is today made up of that region as well as England, Scotland, and Wales. Government of the United Kingdom Today the United Kingdom is considered a constitutional monarchy and a Commonwealth realm. Its official name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Great Britain includes England, Scotland, and Wales). The executive branch of the UKs government consists of a Chief of State (Queen Elizabeth II) and a head of government (a position filled by the Prime Minister). The legislative branch is made up of a bicameral Parliament consisting of the House of Lords and the House of Commons, while the UKs judicial branch includes the Supreme Court of the UK, the Senior Courts of England and Wales, Northern Irelands Court of Judicature and Scotlands Court of Session and High Court of the Justiciary. Economics and Land Use in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom has the third largest economy in Europe (behind Germany and France) and it is one of the worlds largest financial centers. The majority of the UKs economy is within the service and industrial sectors and agriculture jobs represent less than 2% of the workforce. The main industries of the UK are machine tools, electric power equipment, automation equipment, railroad equipment, shipbuilding, aircraft, motor vehicles, electronics and communications equipment, metals, chemicals, coal, petroleum, paper products, food processing, textiles, and clothing. The agricultural products of the UK are cereals, oilseed, potatoes, vegetables cattle, sheep, poultry and fish. Geography and Climate of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom is located in Western Europe to the northwest of France and between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. Its capital and largest city is London, but other large cities are Glasgow, Birmingham, Liverpool, and Edinburgh. The UK has a total area of 94,058 square miles (243,610 sq km). Much of the topography of the UK consists of rugged, undeveloped hills and low mountains but there are flat and gently rolling plains in the eastern and southeastern areas of the country. The highest point in the UK is Ben Nevis at 4,406 feet (1,343 m) and it is located in the northern UK in Scotland. The climate of the UK is considered temperate despite its latitude. Its climate is moderated by its maritime location and the Gulf Stream. However, the UK is known for being very cloudy and rainy throughout much of the year. The western parts of the country are wettest and also windy, while the eastern portions are drier and less windy. London, located in England in the south of the UK, has an average January low temperature of 36ËšF (2.4ËšC) and a July average temperature of 73ËšF (23ËšC). References Central Intelligence Agency. (6 April 2011). CIA - The World Factbook - United Kingdom. Retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uk.html Infoplease.com. (n.d.). United Kingdom: History, Geography, Government, and Culture- Infoplease.com. Retrieved from: infoplease.com/ipa/A0108078.html United States Department of State. (14 December 2010). United Kingdom. Retrieved from: state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3846.htm Wikipedia.com. (16 April 2011). United Kingdom - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_kingdom

How to Campaign for a Mock Election

How to Campaign for a Mock Election A mock election is a simulated election process which is designed to give students a deeper understanding of the election process. In this popular exercise, students participate in every aspect of a national campaign and then participate in the voting process in order to get a complete understanding of the democratic process. The components of your exercise may include: Discovering and filing the paperwork you need to submit to runSelecting candidatesOrganizing caucusesCreating a campaignWriting speechesDesigning campaign postersCreating polling boothsMaking ballotsVoting What Are the Benefits? When you participate in a practice election, you will learn about the election process, but youll also sharpen many skills as you participate in a simulated version of a national election: You will gain public speaking experience as you participate in speeches and debates.You can sharpen critical thinking skills as you analyze campaign speeches and ads.You can gain event-planning experience by getting involved in organizing the meetings and rallies.You can learn to communicate effectively as you develop campaign materials and events. Choosing a Candidate You may not have a choice about the role you play or even about the candidate you support in a mock election. Teachers will usually divide a class (or an entire student body of a school) and assign candidates. It is important in a mock election to make the process fair and to avoid hurt feelings and feelings of being ostracized. Its not always a good idea to pick the candidate that is supported by your family because students who are greatly outnumbered can feel pressured or ridiculed for supporting an unpopular candidate. Every candidate is unpopular somewhere! Preparing for the Debate A debate is a formalized discussion or argument. You must study the rules or processes that debaters follow in order to prepare. Youll want to learn what will be expected of you! Your school may have special rules to add to the general guidelines youll find online. Its also a good idea to watch your opponents campaign advertisements on YouTube (the real candidate, that is). You can gain clues about your opponents position on controversial topics. These ads will highlight his or her potential strengths and may even shed light on a potential weakness. How Do I Run a Campaign? A campaign is like a long-running TV commercial. You are really designing a sales pitch for your candidate when you run a campaign, so youll use many sales techniques in this process. Youll want to be honest, of course, but you want to pitch your candidate in the most agreeable way, with positive words and attractive materials. You will need to establish a platform, which is a set of beliefs and positions that your candidate holds on specific topics. You will need to research the candidate that you represent and write a mock-up of those positions in language that is suitable for your audience. An example of a statement in your platform is I will promote investments in clean energy in order to provide a healthy environment for future families. (See real platforms from presidential campaigns.) Dont worryyour own platform does not need to be as long as a real one! By writing out your platform, you gain a clear understanding of the candidate you support. This will help you as you design campaign materials. Using the platform as a guideline you can: Write a campaign speech Draw posters to support your issuesWith permission from parents, design a Facebook page for your candidateCreate a poll on Facebook or in Survey Monkey to get feedback from votersCreate a campaign blog with Blogger

Electroal College Reform Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Electroal College Reform - Research Paper Example Supporters of election reform want to eradicate the Electoral College system and substitute the one person, one vote which is more familiar and seemingly to some, a more democratic means. Under the Electoral College system the number of electors each state is allocated equals the number of its U.S. House Representatives it currently has plus two, the number of its U.S. Senators. (Kimberling, 1992). Persons in the smaller populated states maintain that if the electoral system were eliminated, presidential candidates would have no incentive to advertise or campaign in their states. â€Å"Why visit a small state with a media market that reaches, say, 100,000 people, when a visit to a large state can put the candidate in touch with millions?† (Gregg, 2001). The McConnell Center for Political Leadership at the University of Louisville studied the grounds for the public’s opinion that a direct, one-person-one-vote procedure would be fairer than the present system. The findings discredited common perceptions that eradicating the electoral system would improve the process. The Electoral College system isn’t usually a contention amongst the electorate unl ess an anomaly in the vote arises and it did fairly recently, in 2000, an event which moved the issue to the forefront of debate where it remains still. The simple truth is if the 2000 election were based on a popular vote, Al Gore would have won by about half a million votes. Many rightly cries foul but actually the Electoral College spared the nation from a substantial dilemma. Envisage the anguish of the nation in the event such a close outcome was determined by a simple majority. â€Å"With just a few hundred thousand votes separating the candidates, every vote in every precinct, in every state would have been worthy of a recount and every recount in every county subject to suit and countersuit† (Gregg, 2001). The outcome may still not be

Philosophy Compare Derrida and J.L. Austin's views on langauge Essay

Philosophy Compare Derrida and J.L. Austin's views on langauge - Essay Example Austin's ideas precede those of Derrida, and in many ways may be seen as the foundation that Derrida and his fellow post-structuralists seek to dismantle. The basis of Austin's ideas is that language can be divided between two broad categories. These are performative acts and performative utterances. Take the example that I have just stood on your toe. Two possible verbal reactions are possible. One, I say "I apologize for stepping on your toe". Alternatively, I might say "I am sorry for stepping on your toe". The first sentence is an example of a performative act: I have performed the 'act' of apologizing for stepping on your toe. The second sentence is not an act however - as I am just stating what I feel about stepping on your toe. I may be apologizing, but on the other hand I may not be - it may be just what I feel on the inside. This appears to be a very simple distinction, but from this basic premise, Austin moves into increasingly complex examinations of the structure of language in the form of acts/utterances. Essentially, the words that we use rely upon a whole series of other facts, realities, possibilities and assumptions in order for them to have meaning. For example, I say to you, "I am going to marry you tomorrow". In some ways this is a performative act - it is a direct statement of what I will do, as opposed to a feeling. However, the act definition depends upon a number of outside factors. It remains an act if we are both unmarried, if you the opposite gender from me, if we are both of age, if we live in a place where you can get a marriage license within 24 hours . . . . etc. But if either of us is already married, or perhaps we are already married, if we are the same gender etc. then the act becomes an utterance because there is no way of the act really occurring. From this start, Austin moves through a detailed examination of performance acts and utterances, and eventually uses his analysis to counter some of the very bases of all philosophy. One of his most important arguments is that the obsession of philosophy with whether something is "true" or "false" is in fact what he calls a "tyranny" (Austin, 1976). Because any statement depends upon the hierarchy of facts, realities, feelings that was outlined above, the idea that it can be easily categorized as "true" or false" is absurd. It all depends upon the overall environment within which the statement exists. Austin calls this "a dimension of assessment" (1976). While eventually Austin rejects the idea that all language can be divided between performative acts and utterances, the basic structure remains in place. A particular sentence is either an act or it is an utterance. This is what can be referred to as a Cartesian worldview of opposites. Derrida comes from a very different viewpoint. As the very title of his famous book suggests, he seeks to understand the world from the "margins" of philosophy. He seeks to philosophize from the point of view of what he calls both/and (Derrida, 1985). For Derrida the attempt to divide language into either/or reduces the situation through simplifying it. He finds it much more interesting if a word or sentence can be both an act and an utterance. Derrida works through a system of paradox in which the speaker, far from using words that reflect his intention, in fact has his intention determined by the words that he is using. This is the direct attack that Derrida lays against the ideas of